In the escalating global effort to reduce China’s overwhelming command of rare-earth markets, nations across North America, Europe, and Australasia are racing to carve out a share from Chinese dominance. This effort is marked by the involvement of numerous mining companies and government bodies, as they tackle the challenge of China’s control over approximately 90% of the world’s rare-earth oxides and metals.
Rare earths are critical components in a myriad of essential manufacturing sectors. They are indispensable in the production of semiconductors, LEDs, lasers, displays, metal alloys, optical lenses, and catalysts for petroleum and chemical processing. The most crucial application, however, is in the production of permanent magnets that power a wide range of electric motors, including those used in electric vehicles and military systems.
Access to rare-earth elements is becoming increasingly critical for any nation aiming to maintain competitiveness in key high-tech industries. With the traditional reliance on Chinese supply chains presenting more challenges, the term “mineral war” is being used by some analysts to describe the current situation (source). Nations are now facing significant hurdles in creating alternative supply chains, either independently or collaboratively.
Despite these challenges, experts in the rare-earth sector are hopeful about the potential of monazite, a type of ore rich in valuable rare earths, including neodymium, praseodymium, and dysprosium. “The future is monazite,” states Jack Lifton, an analyst and consultant who has followed the industry since 1962, and cochairman of the Critical Minerals Institute. He emphasizes the importance of monazite in establishing a North American supply chain.
However, processing monazite is not without its difficulties. The ore often contains radioactive thorium and uranium, leading to stringent regulations by government agencies concerning its handling and storage. These regulations necessitate specific processing techniques and long-term storage solutions for the mildly radioactive waste produced.
Investment is steadily flowing into monazite mining and processing. Energy Fuels in the United States, for instance, has developed its own extraction process at its White Mesa Mill and is producing rare-earth oxides. The company has committed over $200 million to secure monazite assets in Brazil and Madagascar, with plans to scale up production at an estimated cost of $410 million. In a boost to these efforts, the U.S. government recently announced a $725 million conditional loan commitment to Energy Fuels.
Yet, successes are not guaranteed. In Saskatchewan, Canada, a government-backed project encountered setbacks despite significant investment and promises. Initially projected to produce hundreds of tonnes of rare earths by 2024, the project has been delayed, now eyeing a 2027 completion with costs exceeding CA $216 million, as reported by the Saskatchewan Research Council’s CEO, Mike Crabtree.
Globally, companies like Astron Limited, Hastings Technology Metals, Iluka Resources, and others are embarking on their own monazite projects. Notably, Lynas Rare Earths, headquartered in Perth, is expanding its operations in Australia and Malaysia.
What Are the Advantages of Monazite Ore?
Monazite ore, found abundantly on Earth, offers substantial advantages for rare-earth production. It exists in two main forms: hard rock deposits and heavy mineral sands. The latter, found in coastal and riverine locations, is particularly attractive as the sands are already granular, easing the separation process.
Monazite typically contains a high percentage of rare earths, including the essential elements for magnets: neodymium, praseodymium, dysprosium, and terbium. Collecting monazite from sands is less labor-intensive compared to traditional mining, and the sands can be processed using magnetic or gravity-based techniques.
However, the presence of thorium, which is weakly radioactive, poses a significant challenge. This element’s radioactive properties require careful handling and storage to avoid categorization as nuclear waste, which can outweigh the economic benefits of mining.
How to Scale Rare-Earth Processing Using “Waste”
One approach to harnessing monazite’s potential involves utilizing existing waste products. Energy Fuels, for example, uses monazite ore sourced from Chemours, a company that processes heavy mineral sands for titanium and zirconium. This ore, previously considered waste, is now a valuable source of rare-earth oxides.
Energy Fuels has begun selling rare-earth oxides and has plans for expansion. The company aims to produce up to 6,000 tonnes of rare-earth oxide annually, a move supported by a recent $725 million loan commitment from the U.S. government.
What Are the Risks in the Rare-Earth Supply Chain?
Despite the potential of monazite, projects face numerous risks, including securing a reliable supply of ore, managing toxic by-products, and overcoming political and regulatory hurdles. A project in Saskatoon, Canada, exemplifies these challenges as it struggles with feedstock availability despite a promising start.
Handling the radioactive by-products of monazite processing is particularly challenging. Thorium, a by-product, requires indefinite storage in isolation, which has historically led to environmental and health issues, as exemplified by past incidents in Malaysia.
Managing Toxic By-products From Rare Earths
To address these challenges, facilities like those operated by Energy Fuels employ strict regulations and advanced storage solutions. However, the industry must navigate public opposition and regulatory scrutiny to ensure safe and sustainable operations.
Looking forward, innovative uses for thorium, such as in nuclear power, could provide a solution to the storage dilemma. Yet, substantial hurdles remain, requiring industry and government collaboration to realize the full potential of monazite for rare-earth production.
Original Story at spectrum.ieee.org